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Memory
Barbara J. Ehren
University of Kansas - Center for Research on Learning
It is important to understand the role of memory in the acquisition of the background knowledge necessary for reading comprehension. In this reading we will explain the types of memory, including short-term memory, working memory and long-term memory. We will also discuss briefly the language variables in memory.
Types of Memory
Short-term memory usually refers to a vivid form of memory that lasts for only a few seconds after receiving a stimulus. Think of it as a temporary storage area. Working memory encompasses the practical functions of short-term memory. It's a kind of temporary memory used in information processing. When information is needed temporarily for a current thinking activity, that information is held in working memory. For reading comprehension it assists with keeping in mind text that was just read. It also serves to accumulate information while comprehension occurs. (Cowen, 1996). Unlike short-term memory, working memory can be used for hours.
When you read a passage, your working memory helps to hold the gist of the passage in your mind while you search your schemata to identify a fit with a specific interpretation. Do you read passages only once? Often when confronted with an interpretive task, the reader may re-read the passage or parts of it, in case a specific detail that might help with interpretation was not captured by short-term memory or didn't make it into working memory.
Activation of information in short-term memory does not last long unless the learner works to store it. One tool for doing so is verbal rehearsal to get information into working memory or long-term memory. Have you ever been in a situation where you had to remember a telephone number and you didn't have a pen to write down the number? What did you do? If you are like me, you said the number over and over again; you verbally rehearsed it until you could dial or get a pen. So, in essence, with regard to reading comprehension, short-term memory and working memory deal with the immediate processing of text and the need to hold information just read in the mind in order to integrate it with both subsequent text and prior knowledge.
Long-term memory involves the permanent storage and retrieval of information. It is the key to constructing background knowledge. Storage involves the collection of information in the memory banks, whereas retrieval involves the accessing or use of the information when it is needed. In our discussion of the role of memory in reading comprehension, we are concerned with students' construction of their background knowledge, which is a storage issue. We are also concerned about their ability to recall, or retrieve, background information as they try to comprehend what they read.
Marilee Sprenger, in her book Learning and Memory: The Brain in Action (1999), uses the schema of memory "lanes" to elucidate the role of memory in learning. For learning to be permanent it has to follow certain paths or lanes. She describes these lanes as supermarket aisles. A memory is stored in one of the aisles, depending on its nature. In trying to retrieve information, you have to go down the right aisle to find the item you are looking for. There are five aisles, or memory lanes: (1) semantic memory holds information learned from words, like most learning from textbooks, lectures, or online instruction; (2) episodic memory deals with locations and is sometimes called contextual or spatial memory. For example, you sometimes remember where specific information is in your textbook. When you take an exam, you may try to visualize the place on the page containing the information to help you recall the material; (3) procedural memory involves processes that the body does and remembers, like driving a car; (4) automatic memory, which is also called conditioned response memory, is triggered by certain stimuli, e.g., a song on the radio makes you think of a pleasant dining experience during which you heard that song; (5) emotional memory holds experiences that made you feel in a certain way and takes precedence over any other kind of memory. I remember being scared to death seeing the movie, It Came from Outer Space. Even though I saw it as a young child, I can still remember specific scenes very vividly.
Language Variables in Memory
In our discussion of memory, although meant to be brief, we need to at least mention the language variable, since it plays such an important role with students with learning disabilities. Levels of language development affect the manner in which long-term memories are encoded, stored, and retrieved at a later time and expressed. Along these lines, we want you to be aware of three ideas: (1) It is possible for students to have difficulty coding information for memory storage if they do not have good use of language since words are needed for semantic memory. (2) Students may not have storage problems but may experience difficulty retrieving information. Many experts believe that most information retrieval tasks involve phonological encoding. Some students may have specific problems in this area which can interfere with accessing memory. (3) Students with language disorders may recall information but may not have the verbal skills to report it. They may not have retrieval problems per se but may not have the semantic or syntactic structures with which to express information.
Cowan, N. (1996). Short-term memory, working memory and their importance in language processing. Topics in Language Disorders, 17, 1-18.
Sprenger, M.(1999). Learning and memory: The brain in action. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
